Mauryan Empire (321 To 185bc)

Chanakya Neeti

“Once you start working on something don’t be afraid of failure and don’t abandon it . People who work sincerely are the happiest.” SOURCES- ARCHAEOLOGY & LITERATURE 

LITERATURE

1.BUDDHIST LITERATURE-

• JATAKA TALES, DIPA VAMSA, MAHA VAMSA, DIVYA VADAN
• DIPA VAMSA, MAHA VAMSA – written in Pali language
  • The meaning of Dipavamsa is “Chronicle of Island”. It is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka.
  • Mahavamsa is the most important Pali epic poem. Mahavamsa means “Great Chronicle”. It’s a historical poem in Pali Language which deals about the Kings of Sri Lanka.
  • According to Buddhist texts Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, Ashoka was converted to Buddhism by his nephew Nigrodha.
  • Ashoka became king by killing 99 of his brothers – Mahavamsa
• Divyavadana
  • The Divyavadana or Divine narratives is a Sanskrit anthology of Buddhist avadana tales. The anthology contains 38 avadana stories in all, including the well-known Asokavadana “Legend of Asoka”.
  • Avadna is the name given to a type of Buddhist literature correlating past lives’ virtuous deeds to subsequent lives’ events.
  • The Ashokavadana (“Narrative of Ashoka”) is a 2nd century CE text related to the legend of the Maurya Emperor Ashoka the Great.
  • According to the Ashokavadana, he ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas to house the Buddhas relics.
  • The Ashokavadana is an account of the birth and reign of King Ashoka. According to the legend, the birth of Ashoka was predicted by the Buddha, in the story, “The Gift of Dust”
  • According to the Ashokavadana ,Ashoka built an elaborate torture chamber, termed as the “hell on earth”
  • Once he encountered a Buddhist monk Samudra, who was not troubled by any of the sufferings. Impressed by the monk, Ashoka converted to Buddhism, became a pious man and built 84,000 stupas.

2.JAINA LIT.-

• KALPASUTRA( author- Bhadrabahu)
• PARISISTA PARVANA) author- Hemchandra)- allude Chandragupta’s connection with Jainism.
• The Parishishtaparvan also known as the Sthaviravalicharitra is a 12th-century Sanskrit mahakavya by Hemachandra which details the histories of the earliest Jain teachers.

3.BRAHMAN LITERATURE:-

• Kautilya’s Arthshashastra
  • Written in Sanskrit by Chanakya / Kautilya / Vishnugupta /
  • Chanakya is also known as Indian Machiavelli
  • Manuscript of Arthashastra discovered by R.Shamashastry in 1905.
  • Theme of Arthashastra – statecraft. It contains details about the administrative system, political system, defence strategies and economic policies of the Mauryan Empire.
  • Contains 15 books(Adhikaran) & 180 chapters; with main theme divided into 3 parts
  • King & his council and departments of government( saptang theory )- These seven elements were, in the order below: 1) svami (the king) 2) amatya (ministers) 3) janapada (the territory and its people, i.e., subjects) 4) durga (a fortified capital) 5) kosha (the treasury) 6) danda/army (justice or force) 7) mitra (ally)
  • SAPTANG THEORY MEANS STATE HAS SEVEN ELEMENTS.
  • Many scholars believed that a part of Arthashastra were written before Mayuran & after Mauryan period.
  • Limitation- problem of interpolation
• Vishakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa
  • A drama in Sanskrit written during Gupta’s period
  • Describes how Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Kautilya overthrew Nandas.
  • Chnadragupta Maurya has been called as Vrishala means a person of lower clan.
  • Gives socio – economic picture of condition under mauryas
• RAJTARNGINI by KALHANA:-
  • History of Kashmir written in Sanskrit in 12th century.(1148 C.E) by Kalhana.
  • Kalhana has been referred as true historian of ancient India
  • Used historical sources in a rational way
  • city of Srinagar was founded by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka and that Buddhism reached the Kashmir valley during this period.
  • Ashoka built many stupas in Kashmir, and was succeeded by his son Jalauka.
  • limitation- regionalism- he tried to link all the important ruler with Kashmir irrespective of their rule in Kashmir.
• Akananuru & Purananuru- part of sangam literature written in Tamil language.
• Tamil poet Mamulanar (Book Akananuru)- southward expansion of the Mauryas.
• Katha saritsagar- somedeva( 11th century- story & folk tales)- Chandragupta was a son of Purva-Nanda
• Brihat katha manjri- kshemendra(11th century- Kashmir)- Chandragupta was a son of Purva-Nanda

FOREIGN ACCOUNTS

• Indica of Megasthenes.
• Contemporary writings of writers like Nearchus, Onesicritus, Aristobulus .
• Writings of later Greek & Roman authors like Justin, Plutarch, Strabo & Pliny.

 MEGASTHENE’S INDICA

• MEGASTHENES WAS A GREEK AMBASSADOR IN COURT OF CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
• HIS BOOK IS SURVIVED IN FRAGMENTS & PROVIDES DETAIL ABOUT MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION , MUNICIPAL ADMINSTRATION, MILITARY ORGANIZATION, PARTICULARLY OF CAPITAL CITY (PATLIPUTRA)
• MAURYAN SOCIETY WAS DIVIDED INTO SEVEN CLASSES- philosophers, farmers, herdsmen & hunters, artisans (traders), soldiers, overseers (magistrates) & the king’s counsellors.
• Curiously, he makes no mention of the notion of social pollution or of the category of untouchables.
• There were no slaves  in India.
• Famine does not occur.
• OFFICERS- AGRONOMOI (DC- measurement of land for revenue assessment), ASTYNOMOI.
• AGRONOMOI – Referred to by Megasthenes as an official who were entrusted with, among other things, collection of revenue, supervision of irrigation facilities, judicial administration and maintenance of roads. (Rajjuka of Asoka’s inscriptions may logically be compared with Agronomoi of the Greek accounts and therefore appear to have been an important officer at the district level.)
• ASTYNOMOI -The officers who looked after the city administration in the Mauryan empire, according to Megasthenes
• HE MENTIONED TWO GODS VENERATED BY INDIANS – DIONYSUS(SHIVA), HERAKLES(KRISHNA)
• MUNICIPAL & MILITARY ADMIN- MANAGED BY 6 BOARDS , EACH BOARD HAD 5 MEMBERS.
• ALL LANDS BELONGS TO THE KING.
• FARMERS WERE NEVER TOUCHED IN WAR.
• INDIANS DID NOT BORROW OR LEND MONEY ON INTEREST.
• INDIANS DO NOT KNOW WRITING.
• Limitation- not able to understand Mauryan society properly because at that time Indian society was divided into four varna & slaves were there in India.

ARCHAEOLOGY

• MAURYAN COINS
• NBPW( northern black polished ware- associated with iron culture)
• MAURYAN PALACE
• PIPRAHWA CASKET INSCRIPTION , SOHGAURA & MAHASTHAN INSCRIPTION( FEW HISTORIANS BELIEVED PRE ASHOKA). SOHGAURA(GORAKHPUR) IS CONSIDERED AS OLDEST COPPER PLATE INSCRIPTION OF INDIA. MAHASTHAN( BANGLADESH- STONE INSCRIPTION). BOTH DEALS ABOUT RELIEF MEASURES DURING FAMINE.
• ASHKOA’S INSCRIPTIONS
• DASHRATH’S NAGARJUNI HILL INSCRIPTION
• JUNAGADH INSCRIPTION OF RUDRADAMAN( first inscription in sanskrit, Rudradaman reconstructed Sudarshan lake of Kathiawar in 2^nd century AD. CHANDRAGUPTA STARTED THE CONSTRUCTION WORK OF SUDARSHAN LAKE, COMPLETED DURING ASHOKA PERIOD AS PER JUNAGARH INSCRIPTION.
• The Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman is the only inscription which mentions the name of both Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka.

ORIGIN & VARNA OF MAURYAN

• The origin and early life of Chandragupta Maurya (founder of Mauryan empire) remain obscure.
• BRAHMAN LITERATURE & MUDRA RAKSHA- CHANDRAGUPTA BELONGS TO LOWER CLAN. MUDRA RAKSHA FOR CHANDRA GUPTA USED VRISHALA MEANS OF LOWER CLAN. According to the Puranic tradition (Vishnu Purana), Chandragupta Maurya was the son of the last Nanda king from his Sudra concubine, Mura. The name Maurya is believed to be derived from his mother’s name Mura.
• Jaina tradition – The 12th century text Parishishtaparvan written by Jaina author, Hemachandra, identifies Chandragupta as the grandson of the chief of peacock-tamers’ clan (mayura-poshakas).
• BUDDHIST TEXT-
  • Buddhist tradition speaks of the existence of his Kshatriya clan called Mauryas living in the region of Goraakhpur adjoining the Nepalese terai.
  • Buddhist texts such as the Digha Nikaya, Mahavamsa, and Divyavadana trace the Mauryan ancestry to a khattiya (Pali for kshatriya) clan called the Moriyas, who ruled at Pipphalivana.
• GREEK- MAURYANS WERE FROM HUMBLE FAMILY.

CHANDRAGUPTA-321-298 BCE

Chandragupta Maurya was a great warrior, empire builder and a skilled administrator. He became the first great historical emperor of India. Many historians consider him to be the first hero of India’s war of independence, liberator of India as well as the first ruler of the integrated India.

• Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321 – c. 297 BCE), known as Sandrocottus to the Greeks, was the founder of the Maurya Dynasty.
• Greek author called Chandragupta as Sandrocottus – WILLIAM JONES, a modern historian, identified Sandrocottus as Chandragupta.
• MOTHER – MURA
• Father – Sarvarthasiddhi Maurya
• Dhundiraja, a commentator on the Vishnu Purana, states that Chandragupta was a Nanda scion, son of the Nanda king Sarvarthasiddhi with Mura, the daughter of a hunter.
• Chandragupta was noticed by a Brahmin teacher (Acharya) of the Taxilla (Takshashila) university, named Acharya Chanakya Vishnugupta (and also known as Kautilya), the son of the famed scholar, Chanak, and a pundit in his own right. Vishnugupta took the young Chandragupta under his tutelage where his formative years took shape.
• The Greek accounts add that Chandragupta moved to north west India and subdued the Greek garrisons left behind Alexander. (DEFEATED UDEMUS & CONQUER SINDH-PUNJAB AREA)
• After gaining victory over the north western frontier area Chandragupta and Chanakya moved towards the Magadh empire. Chandragupta took advantage of the growing unpopularity of the Dhanananda, the last Nanda ruler . He overthrew the Nandas and established the rule of Mauryan empire.
• Once he established his control over the Ganga plain, he moved to the North-West where he defeated the Greek General Seleucus Nicator, the successor of Alexander the Great & ruler of Syria. A treaty was signed and some Seleucid territories like Kabul, Kandahar, Baluchistan were ceded to the Mauryan kingdom. There was also a possible marriage alliance between the two royal families.
• Seleucus and Chandragupta also agreed to a marriage alliance, probably the marriage of Seleucus’ daughter (named Berenice or helena in Indian Pali sources) to Chandragupta. In return for the territory ceded, Seleucus obtained 500 elephants.
• Seleucus sent an envoy, Megasthenes to the Mauryan court.
• Victory over Western India: According to the Girnar inscription (150AD) of Rudradaman, Chandragupta Maurya established his direct control over the western area till Saurashtra. Pushyagupta Vaishya was the governor of the area who is credited for building Sudarshan lake. The Ashokan inscription found from Sopara also proves the control of Mauryan empire over the area.
• Victory over Southern India: The victory of Chandragupta Maurya over Southern India is mentioned in Ashoka an inscriptions, Jain texts and Sangam literature. He gained control over the area of Northern Karnataka. Jain texts mentions about his visit to Shravana Belgola (Karnataka) and Chandragiri mountain. The sangam text Mamulnar and Ahnanur also gives a detailed information about his control over southern territories.
• JUSTIN CALLED ARMY OF CHANDRA GUPTA AS – BAND OF ROBBERS.
• Plutarch mentions that Sandrocottus over-ran and subdued the whole of ‘India’ with an army of 600,000 men.
• According to Pliny’s account, Chandragupta’s army consisted of 9000 elephants, 3000 cavalry and 6000 infantry. Plutarch’s account refers to 6000 elephants, 80000 horses, 20000 foot soldiers, and 8000 war chariots.
• According to Jaina tradition, Chandragupta became an ardent Jaina towards the end of his life. He made his son Bindusara, the king of Magadha, become an ascetic. He deliberately starved himself to death by following sallekhna or santhara at Shravanbelgola, Karnatka.

BINDUSARA

• Mother – Durdhara.
• Bindusara ascended the throne in about 297 B.C. According to Buddhist tradition he was associated with the Ajivika sect. A Tibetan history of the Buddha suggests that Bindusara campaigned in the Deccan. However it is not sure whether this land was occupied by Bindusara or his son Asoka.
• The Mahabhashya refers to Chandragupta’s successor as Amitraghata, which literary means ‘a slayer of enemies’. On the other hand, Greek accounts such as those of Athenaios and Strabo knew him as Amitrokhates or Alitrokhates.
• He too continued to exchange embassies with Greece and showed interest in Greek philosophy. Seleucus Nicator’s successor Antiochus 1 replaced Megasthenes with Deimachus as a Greek ambassador at Mauryan court under Bindusara’s patronage.
• Bindusara asked three things- fig, sweet wine & sophist. First two were given by Antiochus.
• Bindusara appointed Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain & Susheema as Taxila. Buddhist text refers to Ashoka putting down a revolt in Taxila due to the activities of wicked ministers.
• Bindusara was inclined towards Ajivika sect
• Bindusara died in 272 B.C.

ASHOKA 269-68—232 BCE

Asoka was one of the greatest kings of India. He was the son of Bindusara and grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. Ashoka occupies a unique place in the history of India. His policies of universal peace, non-violence and religious harmony find no parallel in the monarchs of the world. Ashoka stands out as a monarch who combined successful kingship with idealism and philosophy. He was one of India’s most extraordinary rulers, who openly declared an ‘official’ end to war and transformed into a propounder of peace.

• His royal title was -Devanam piyya( beloved of gods). In most of his inscription he inscribed his royal title in place of his real name.
• Four inscription of Ashoka in which his name has been inscribed are – Maski, Nittur, Udegolam , Gujjara(Datia district, M.P). Maski, Nittur & Udegolam are in Karnatka.
• The first inscribed portrait of Ashoka (surrounded by female attendants and queens) found at Kanaganahalli, Karnatka was unearthed from the ruined Buddhist stupa.
• Mother of Ashoka-subhdrangini( janpad kalyani)- she was the daughter of a brahman of Champa.
• Wife- Devi (mother of Mahendra & Sanghamitra)- she was from Vidisha & a daughter of Buddhist traders. She was the first wife of Ashoka.
• The Second Wife of Ashoka was Rani Kaurwaki or Karuvaki. Rani Kaurwaki was a daughter of a fisherman who stayed in Kalinga.
• Karuvaki (mother of tivar)- only wife mentioned in Ashoka’s inscription- prayag pillar edict
• Padmavati- Nothing much is known about Rani Padmavati except the fact that she was the mother of Ashoka’s son Kunala.
• The Fourth Wife of Ashoka was Asandhimitra, his Chief Queen. she belonged to Assandhivat, a little kingdom which finds its presence in the present day Haryana.
• After Ashoka’s chief consort Asandhimitra died in 240CE, her favorite maid Tishyaraksha took care of Ashoka. Ashoka promoted Tishyaraksha to the position of Chief Queen.
• Susheem- was the elder brother of Ashoka
• Tissa- younger brother
• Charumati- daughter of Ashoka. Married in Nepal.

Political Activities

• We can know about Asoka through his edicts distributed over a large part of India. They give us a detailed account about his life and various activities. However, for the early life of Asoka we have to depend upon the Buddhist account. According to Buddhist tradition he was appointed governor of Taxila and Ujjain during the reign of Bindusara. There is a controversy regarding his accession to the throne. Whether he ascended the throne immediately after his father’s death or whether there was a four year interregnum involving a struggle for the throne with his brothers is not very clear.
• As per Mahavamsa Ashoka became king by killing 99 of his brothers sparing only one- Tissa. While as per Northern Buddhist text this battle was fought mainly between Susheem & Ashoka.
• The most important event in the early life of Asoka was the famous campaign in Kalinga in about 261 B.C. It was possible that the main motive behind this campaign was to obtain resources from Kalinga, to safeguard the trade routes with the peninsula or to give Kalingans a lesson for overthrowing Magadhan control. From his 13th inscription, we come to know that the battle was a massive one and caused the deaths of more than 100,000 soldiers
• Large scale deaths in the war moved the king. After this incident he became attracted to Buddhism. But the conversion did not take place immediately. It took almost two and a half years for him to embrace Buddhism. Initially Ashoka was shaivaite.
• To control Kalinga effectively he made two administrative centres in Kalinga- North- Toshli, South- Jaugarh.
• Appointed a class of administrative officers known as “Rajukas” vested with the power of rewarding & punishing people, wherever necessary
• 10th year of his coronation he visited- Bodhgaya
• 20th year of his coronation he visited- Lumbini.

DHAMMA OF ASHOKA

• Dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma, meaning, according to the context, the universal law or righteousness.
• Was a moral law or a common code of conduct
• It was neither new religion nor a form of Buddhism nor a court religion.
• It was not forcibly introduced
• Definition of dhamma taken from Rahulovadsutta (Buddhist text)
• Why introduced– to strengthen his empire, to promote communal harmony
• Elements that were to be followed– gentleness, generosity, purity, truthfulness, respect to parents, teacher, non-violent, expense minimum own little
• Elements that were to be renounced-cruel, anger, jealous, arrogance
• Steps taken to spread dhamma:-
  • Appoinment of Dhamma Mahamatra
  • Started Dhamma yatra
  • Welfare works- built hospitals, ban on animal sacrifice
  • Sent dhamma dutta
  • Raised the power of bureaucracy
• Nature of dhamma:-
  • Secular
  • Humanistic
  • Welfare approach
• Impact:-
  • Maintained the territorial integrity of empire
  • encouraged tolerance
  • Not able to change the mindset of his neighbours & officers. Because just after the death of Ashoka foreign rulers invaded Mauryan region.

Steps taken by Ashoka to spread Buddhism

Ashoka’s connection with Buddhism is reflected in Buddhist texts and in his inscriptions.

• After battle of Kalinga embraced Buddhism
• Organised third Buddhist council at Patliputra.
• Sent Buddhist missionary across Indian Subcontinent. The Mahavamsha gives the list of the names of propagators of Dhamma who went to numerous places inside and outside the country after 3rd Buddhist council to spread the principles of Dhamma like Mahendra and Sangamitra sent to Srilanka.
• Visited Bodhgaya & Lumbini
• As per Buddhist text Ashoka dug out previous eight stupas & constructed 84000 stupas.
• Inscribed teachings of Buddhism on his inscriptions.
• Bairat (also known as Bhabru) – In this inscription, Ashoka greets the sangha, professes his deep faith in the Buddha, dhamma, and sangha.
• The Nigali Sagar pillar inscription states that 14 years after his consecration, Ashoka enlarged the stupa enshrining the relics of Buddha Konagamana (Kanakamuni, a mythical Buddha) to double its size, and 20 years after his consecration, he came in person to this place and had this stone pillar erected.

Patronage of art and architecture

The reign of Asoka also remembered for the remembered for the progress of art and architecture. Several Stupas, Viharas, pillars, sculptures` were constructed during his time.

• It is said that about 84000 Stupas were constructed during the reign of Asoka in different places in his county and aboard. At present the Stupas of Sanchi near Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) is the most prominent among all. From the Fe-hien description, we know it that Asoka built the stupas Taxila, Srinagar, kapilavastu, Banaras and Kannauj also. He rebuilt the stupa of kanakmuni located at Nigalisagar, Nepal.
• Many pillar also set up in order to engrave inscription for his religion. The Sarnath pillar has been regarded as the best pillar of Asoka form the point of beauty and skill shown is its capital. The capital of Sarnath pillar contain the figure of four lion standing back to back this figure is the living example of the progress of Mauryan art.
• He built India’s earliest rock cut caves at Barabar hills. Barabar rock cut caves located near Bodhgaya were given in grant to Ajivika monks.

ASHOKA’S INSCRIPTION

The inscriptions provide sufficient reliable knowledge about the reign of Asoka. Broadly speaking these inscriptions can be divided into three categories. The categories can be mentioned as rock edict (Major & Minor rock edict), pillar edicts (Major & Minor pillar edict) and cave inscriptions.

MAJOR ROCK EDICT-

set of 14 major rock edicts or portion thereof found at eight places.

Location —

• Shahbazgarhi (Peshawar)
• Mansehra (Peshawar)
• Kalsi (Uttarakhand)
• Sopara (Maharashtra)
• Girnar (Gujarat)
• Dhauli (Orissa)
• Jaugada (Orissa).
• Yerraguddi( An.P)
• Sannati (karnatka)- portions of rock edict 12 & 14 & separate rock edicts 1 & 2
• Kandhar (Afg)- only portions of rock edict 12 & 13. (many accept this as minor rock edicts)
• At shahbazgarhi & Mansehra – use of kharosthi script & prakrit language
• in rest of 6 major rock edicts Ashoka used Brahmi script & Prakrit language

MAJOR ROCK EDICT:- 14 information found at 8 places

• ban on animal killing
• neighbouring states of south- CHOLA, PANDAYA, CHERA & SATIYAPUTRA
• spend little & own minimum property. Anushandhan by yukta, rajjuk & pradeshik
• Dhammaghosa is ideal to the mankind and not the Bherighosa. Impact of Dhamma on society.
• dhamma mahamatra
• Efficient administration. All men are my children
• tolerance
• dhamma yatra
• Condemns popular ceremonies
• Condemns the desire for fame and glory. Stresses on popularity of Dhamma.
• Elaborates Dhamma
• tolerance. Appoinment of three new oficers -Striya adhyaksha (itthijhakka) , brajbhumik & dhamma mahamatra
• Asoka’s victory over Kalinga . Victory of Asoka’s Dhamma over Greek Kings, Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander and Cholas, Pandyas etc.  Neighbours of north west kingdoms
• Describes engraving of inscriptions in different parts of country.
• Separate KALINGA Edicts They were found at sites in Kalinga ( INFORMATION NO 11, 12 & 13 ARE NOT INSCRIBED IN DHAULI & JAUGADH). In place of information number 11,12, & 13 he inscribed two new informations at Dhauli & Jaugadh known as separate Kalinga Edict.
  • Separate edict I : Asoka declared all people are my sons
  • Separate Edict II : proclamation of edicts even to a single person

Major pillar edict

• Major Pillar Edicts – set of six ( and in one case seven)
• Contents— These are appendix to rock edicts.
• Location — 1. Allahabad OR Kaushambi-PRAYAG (UP) –located at Kaushambi 2. Delhi Topra (Ambala- Haryana) 3. Delhi-Merut (UP) 4. Lauriya Areraj (Bihar) 5. Lauriya Nandangarh (Bihar) 6. Rampurva (Bihar). 7.Kandhar- only portion of pillar edict 7.
• Delhi-Topra & Delhi-Merut brought by FIROZ SHAH TUGHLUQ from TOPRA & MERUT TO DELHI.
• Delhi-Topra = It is the most popular pillar edict. All the seven inscriptions are written on it . Firoz Shah Tughlaq called it Minar-i-Zaheen.

Information inscribed on major pillar edict

• Pillar Edict I
• Ashoka’s principle of protecting his people.
• Pillar Edict II
• DEFINITION OF Dhamma
• Pillar Edict III
• Avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, harshness, pride and anger among his subjects.
• Pillar Edict IV
• Responsibilities of the Rajukas.
• Pillar Edict V
• List of animals and birds that should not be killed on certain days. Another list which mentions animals that should never be killed.
• Pillar Edict VI
• Dhamma policy of the State.
• Pillar Edict VII
• Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma. Tolerance for all sects.
• Kaushambi-Prayag pillar was brought from Kaushambi to Prayag by Jahangir in the reign of Akbar. In this pillar we found the inscription of Ashoka, Samudragupta & Jahangir.

Minor Rock Edicts

• Contents —Personal history of Ashoka
• Location—1. Siddapura (Karnataka) 2. Jatinga Rameshwara (Karnataka) 3. Brahmagiri (Karnataka) 4. Rupnath (MP, near Jabalpur, Kaimur range) 5. Shasaram (Bihar) 6. Bairat (Rajasthan) 7. Maski (Karnataka) 8. Govimath (Mysore) 9. Palkigundu (Mysore) 10. Rajula Mandagin (Karnataka) 11. Yerragudi (Karnataka) 12. Gujarra (MP, Datia) 13. Ahraura (UP). 14. Saru Maru  located near the village of Pangoraria (Budhani Tehsil, Sehore District, Madhya Pradesh)

Minor Pillar Edicts

• Contents—Ashoka’s Obsession with Dhamma
• Location — 1. Allahabad (UP)2. Sanchi (MP) 3. Sarnath (UP) 4.Rummandei (Nepal)- reduced land revenue from 1/6 to 1/8. Nigliva(Nepal)
• Of the four minor pillars edicts, one is known as Queen’s edict and it is on Allahabad pillar. This was dedicated to Ashoka’s wife Tisrakshita. In this inscription the description of his son Teevar was found.
• Bhabru Rock Edicts
• Contents — Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism and his reverence for his religion. Put his faith in triratna of buddhism
• Location — Calcutta (WB) brought from Bairat (Rajasthan)
• Kandhar or sher e kuna inscription- bilingual( Greek & Aramaik language & script)
• Lampaka or Laghman (Afg) – Aramaic
• Another bilingual- Kandhar (Afg) -Prakrit & Aramaic inscription.
• At Kandhar- two inscriptions are found both are bilingual. One Greek-aramaic & second- Prakrit-aramaic. In the second only Aramaic script is used.
• Sannati( karnatka)- portions of rock edict 12 & 14 & separate rock edicts 1 & 2
• 7th Pillar edict is longest among all the edicts.
• The Allahabad pillar contains first six pillar edicts, Queen’s edict, Kosam Schism edict, Prasasti of Samudragupta written by Harisena and some decrees of Jehangir. The “Queen’s edict” in Allahabad mentions the charitable deeds of Karuvaki.

Cave Edict

• Barabar cave Inscription- REPRESANTS EARLIEST ROCK CUT CAVES IN INDIA
• Contents — Donation of the caves to Ajivikas
• Location — 1. Barabar Hills (Gaya, Bihar) 2. caves – Banyan tree (Sudama) cave, Visvajhopri cave , Supiya/Kama Chaupar Cave & Lomash rishi cave

Language & script:-

• Language- Prakrit(mostly used), Aramaik & Greek
• Script- brahmi( mostly used), kharosthi, aramaik & greek
• James Prinsep decipher the script of Ashoka in 1837. It was not immediately clear to him just which king they referred to.
• Minor rock edicts are considered among the earliest inscriptions then major rock edicts & after that pillar edicts.
• Inscriptions were located along ancient trade & pilgrimage routes.
• Mostly – explanations of Dhamma.

Thus, according to H.C Raichaudhary Ashoka he was as strong as Chandragupta Maurya, was as versatile as Samudragupta  and was as patient as Akbar. He was famous among his subject for his works of welfare. He was the first one to teach the principle of “live and let live” and political violence to be against the religion to the world. Hence, despite giving up the policy of war and imperialism he still managed to consolidate his huge empire received by him in legacy, thus, Ashoka is always remembered among the great rulers of Indian history.

Later Mauryan rulers:-

• Kunal( he was a blind)
• Then Dashrath( also took the title of devanampiyya, built caves at Nagarjuni hills near Barabar hills for Ajivika monks). CAVES- VAPIYAKA, BADATHIKA, GOPIKA.
• Samprati – he was Jaina
• Shalisook or Brihaspati – He was buddhist, implemented Dhamma-Vijay
• Devvarma, Satdhanush
• Brihadratha- last ruler killed by his commander general Pusyamitra Sunga around 187 B.C.

Administration

The Mauryan dynasty organized a very elaborate system of administration. We can collect information about the Mauryan administration from the accounts left by Megasthenes, Kautilya’s Arthasastra and the inscriptions or edicts of Asoka.

Central Government

• The nucleus of the Mauryan system was the king, whose powers had by now increased tremendously. Ashoka interpreted these as paternal kingship, whose rallying call was ‘All men are my children’.
• King was the head of administration. king did not take heavy or pompous title like maharajadhiraj etc.
• Mauryan rulers had not believed in divine origin of kingship unlike Chinese rulers.
• Monarchy was supported by Kautilya however he did not stand for royal absolutism & advocated king to take advice of his ministry in running the administration
• Exam for minister- UPADHA PARIKSHAN
• There seems to have two consultative bodies, one small & other large.
• Small consultative body- mantrins also called MANTRA-PARISHAD.
• Large- MANTRI-PARISHAD.
• A council of ministers called mantriparishad assisted the king in administration matters.
• Mantrin was composed of 3 or 4 members of Mantriparishad (1.Purohit, 2.Mahamantri/Pradhanmantri/Purohit, 3.Senapati & 4.Yuvraj.)
• COM- 12000 pana yearly, while Mantrin got 48000 pana yearly salary.
• Civil servants known as “amatyas” or tirtha (Total number was 18) were appointed to look after day to day administration & their selection method was given by Kautilya

• Under Amatyas there were 26 Adhayakshas or superintendents.
  • Sitaadhyaksha (Agriculture)
  • Navadhyasksha (Shipping and maritime)
  • Mudradhyaksha (Government documents)
  • Pattanadhyaskha (Ports)
  • Lakshanaadhyaskha (Mint)
  • Akaraadhyaksha (Mines Superitendent)
  • pautavadbyaksa or superintendent of weights and measures.

• Land tax (bhaga) was the main item of revenue. According to the texts, it was levied at the rate of 1/6th of the produce. But it is possible that in the Mauryan period it was quite high and levied at the rate of 1/4th of the produce. The Lumbini Edict of Asoka says that when he visited Lumbini, the birthplace of the Buddha, he exempted the village from the payment of bali and reduced the payment of bhaga to 1/8.
• OHER TAXES- CUSTOM DUTY, SALES TAX, PRANAY TAX( EMERGENCY TAX), PINDA( COMMUNITY TAX- GIVEN BY VILLAGE)
• The administration of the army was looked after by a war office consisting of 30 members who were divided six boards of 5 members each : 1. The first was incharge of the navy. 2. The second board was concerned with transport. 3. The third board dealt with infantry. 4. The fourth board was concerned with cavalry. 5. The fifth board was incharge of the chariot. 6. The sixth board was incharge of elephants. Senapati was the head of the department.
• Chanakya refers to Chaturangbala comprising infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants as the principal organs of the army.
• Kautilya divided the army into three parts : 1. The permanent army of the king. 2. The mercenary army. 3. The armies of the municipalities.
• Spy department
• Head of spy was mahamatya parsarp.
• Gudha purvshas were spy.
• Judiciary
• Judicial chief justice of Supreme Court at capital in mauryan times was known as “Dharmadhikari”
• Subordinate courts were under Amatyas
• Two type of court
• Dharamasthasthaniya- civil
• Kantaksodhan- criminal
• Fines served as punishments in most cases. But certain crimes were considered too serious to be punished by fines alone and Ashoka, despite his propagation of non-violence, retained capital punishment.
• Province(chakra) & Local administration
• Mauryan Empire was divided into 5 provinces with capitals at( as per Ashok’s inscription):

• Provincial governors were appointed from the royal family called kumar or aryaputra.

• District Administration/ Aahar/ Vishay: Each was administered by officers i.e Pradeshika, Yukta and Rajukka. Pradeshika was senior and Rajukka was subordinate. Yukta was subordinate to both of them. It was duty of Pradeshika to tour the kingdom every five year (Anusandhan) and collect details of the administration.
• In addition, there were judicial officers, rajukas, in both urban and rural areas, whose judicial functions often combined with assessment of revenue.
• Arthashastra suggests an elaborate administrative structure. In his discussion of the countryside, Kautilya recommends that the king should establish headquarters known as a “Sthaniya” to administer a unit consisting of 800 villages, a “Dronamukha” in a unit of 400 villages, a “Karvatika” in a unit of 200 villages and a “Sangrahana” in a unit of 10 villages. Sthanikas and Gopas were in charge of these administrative units. The village was the smallest unit of local administration.
• The local people appointed as officials in the village were called as gramika. Then, there was Gopa and Sthanika — two types of officers, acting as intermediaries between the district and village level administrative units.

Municipal administration :

• City Administration: There are a number of references to city administration with regard to Palibothra (Pataliputra) by Megasthenes. In this account, the city council was divided into six sub-councils or committees and each committee had five members. These were: First Committee: It looked after industry and crafts. It inspected such centers and looked after fixing of wages etc. Second Committee: It looked after the foreigners. Its functions included arranging for their food, stay, comfort, and security. Third committee: Registration of births and deaths Fourth Committee: Looked after trade and commerce. It inspected weights and measures, markets etc. Fifth Committee: Inspected manufactured goods, made provisions for their sale and steps taken to distinguish between new and second-hand goods Sixth Committee: It collected taxes on the goods sold, the rate being 1/10th.
• Degree of centralization varied – At the hub was the metropolitan state of Magadha. This was the area of maximum centralized administration.
• The core areas were less directly under central control and more effectively under the control of governors and senior officials.
• The third form was that of the peripheral areas, which have been called areas of relative isolation.
• Peripheral areas were probably controlled more by fiat than by conquest and direct administration. Such territories were often viewed as buffer zones. These were generally forested areas providing a wealth of resources in timber, elephants and semi-precious stones.

Decline of Mauryan empire

Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara and Asoka were successful in establishing the imperial authority of the Mauryas over a large number of Janpadas or Kingdoms. However, the imperial authority of the Mauryas began to weaken with the death of Asoka (232 B.C.) and finally collapsed in 185 B.C.

Causes:-

• weak rulers
• foreign invasion- Indo-Greek.
• revolt by officers
• spread of iron culture in periphery area
• role of Ashoka

ECONOMY

• Since the time of sixth century BCE, there had been a continuous expansion of agriculture along with the rise in urban centers.
• AGRICULTURE was the main source of revenue.
• According to Megasthenes, the fertility of the land was such that two crops a year were normal.
• STATE TOOK INTEREST IN THE GROWTH OF AGRICULTURE
• settlement of permanent villages was recognised in the Arthsastra as a method for the expansion of agrarian economy. This process of settlement was called janapadanivesa, but the extent of how this was done is not clearly known. (According to Kautilya’s Arthashastra, the State founded towns through the process of durganivesa or durgavidhana.)
• Arthashastra mentions that new lands should be brought under the plough and for this purpose the shudras were to be settled on these areas.
• SHUDRAS & Slaves WERE EMPLOYED IN SITA LAND( crown land)
• FOREST WERE CLEARD
• SUDARSHAN LAKE BUILT BY CHANDRA GUPTA & REPAIRED BY ASHOKA
• IRRIGATION TAX- UDAKMAG/udakbhag. The rate of water-tax depended on how the water for irrigation was taken.
• Irrigation system was called setubandha
• It is to be noted that the agrarian development was due to irrigation. The task of irrigation was entrusted to the Agoranomois.
• OWNERSHIP OF LAND- COMMUNITY, PRIVATE & STATE
• KSHETRAK- LAND OWNER
• UPWAS- TENANT
• The Greek accounts refer to the production of sugarcane, wheat, millet etc.

CRAFT

• MAHAVASTU A BUDDHIST TEXT MENTIONED DIFFERENT TYPES OF CRAFT. NO OF CRAFT WERE MORE THAN THE BUDDHA PERIOD.
• ARTISANS WERE GIVEN LEGAL PROTECTION BY THE STATE.
• WEAPONS, SALT, MINES & SHIP MAKING WERE COMPLETELY UNDER STATE CONTROL.
• The artisans during the Mauryan period were organized along guild lines.
• The well-known guilds were those of metallurgists, carpenters, potters, leatherworkers, painters, textile workers etc.
• The state employed some artisans, such as armourers and shipbuilders, and they were exempt from tax. Others who worked in state workshops, for example the spinning and weaving shops and the state mines, were liable to pay taxes.
• Metal-workers, for instance, making armour and other expensive items, were accorded a higher status than weavers and potters;
• shreni or puga became increasingly large and complex in structure, and artisans found it advantageous to join them since this eliminated the expense of working alone and having to compete with the larger organization.

TRADE & COMMERCE-

• The Political unity and military security enhanced trade and commerce. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, which made trade easier. The Mauryan Empire benefited from expanded contact from the different regions of the world resulting from trade throughout West Asia and the Greeks. The resources that were often trades were ivory, cotton, silks, and spices for the resources they needed including, lead and wine and other new products to the empire that were found useful.
• Trading Partners – Greece, Hellenic kingdoms, China, Sri Lanka, Malay Peninsula.
• PORT- TAMRALIPTA(BENGAL) & SOPARA(MAHARASTRA)
• IMPORT- GOLD, COSTLY CLOTH
• EXPORT- IVORY, PEARL, CLOTH ETC.
• METAL CURRENCY- PANA( SILVER), MASAK, KAKINI (Copper)
• Mauryan period coins, also known as punch-marked coins, can be identified by their symbols and shapes: Mauryan coins often have five symbols, including a sun, a six-armed symbol, a bull, a hill, and a tree branch.

SOCIETY

• MAURYAN SOCIETY WAS DIVIDED ON THE BASIS OF FOUR VARNA.
• Megasthenes speaks of Mauryan society as having seven divisions – philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsman, artisans, magistrates and councillors.
• SHUDRAS- IN ARTHASASTRA THEY WERE CALLED ARYA. GIVEN THE RIGHT OF VARTA( AGRICULTURE, CATTLE REARING, TRADE)
• SLAVES- 9 TYPES.
• Arthashastra mentioned that if a slave woman gave birth to her master’s child, both she and the child were immediately manumitted.
• FEMALE- KAUTILYA GAVE RIGHT TO DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE. FEMALES WERE BODYGOURD OF KING.
• There is a curious reference (both By kautilya & megasthenese) to the king’s bodyguard consisting of women archers who also accompanied him on hunts.
• In addition, women were liable to be employed by the state as spies and performers. Female ascetics were known, but were few
• PRACTICE OF SATI WAS NOT PREVALENT.
• THERE WAS A PROPER SYSTEM OF CENSUS WHICH REGISTERED ALL THE DETAILS OF THE DEATHS AND BIRTHS.
• The Arthashastra uses the general term mlechchha-jati, with distinctly pejorative connotations, to refer to forest people. The term ATVIKA & ARANYACHARA was also used for forest dwellers.
• The Arthashastra recognized that forest people could be harnessed to serve the state’s interests, and recommends that they could be used as troops (atavibala), spies, and assassins.
• Forest produce was considered a state monopoly.

MAURYAN ART

The origin of monumental stone sculpture and architecture in the Indian subcontinent goes back to the Harappan civilization. However, after the decline of Harappan civilization, there is a long gap and it is only in the Mauryan period that monumental stone sculpture and architecture appeared on the scene again.

• COURT ART – STUPA, PALACE, ROCK CUT CAVES, PILLARS, SCULPTURE
• FOLK ART – SCULPTURES

COURT ART

STUPA :

• Stupas were burial mounds prevalent in India from Vedic period. The word stupa comes two times in Rig veda. It is a symbol of Mahaparinirvana of Buddha and is also considered as axis of universe. Stupas consist of a Medhi, Anda ,Harmika and a Chhatra on the top. The entire structure is enclosed by a low wall called Vedika, which is punctuated at the four cardinal points by Toranas(gateways).
• The core of stupa was built using unburnt bricks while the outer surface was made by using burnt bricks. The toranas were decorated with wooden sculptures . In stupas mainly death remains were kept. Sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas. Piprahwa stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one.
• There are several important stupas which are built by Ashoka for example: Bharhut stupa, Sanchi stupa, Dharmarajjika stupa at Sarnath and Taxila, Bodhgaya stupa and Bairat stupa.
• AS PER BUDDHIST TEXT ASHOKA DUG OUT PREVIOUS 8 STUPAS & BUILT AROUND 84000 STUPAS LIKE:- SANCHI(M.P),BHARHUT(M.P),DHARMARAJIKA OR CHIRTOPE(TAXILA), BODHGAYA, KESARIYA( BIHAR)

• PALACE-
  • REMNANTS OF PALACE OF PATLIPUTRA FOUND AT KUMRAHAR, PATNA.
  • Royal Buildings: The Greek historian Megasthenese described the palaces of the Mauryan empire as one of the greatest creation of mankind and Chinese travelers Fa-Hian called Mauryan palace as god gifted monuments or the monuments built by god not by humans.

ROCK CUT CAVES–

• Caves : The Mauryan period saw the beginning of rock cut cave architecture. The Barabar and Nagarjuni hills contain several caves which are built by Ashoka and Dasharatha. The caves are simple but have highly polished interiors. The only sculpture ornamentation is a relief carving on the doorway of a cave known as Lomas Rishi Cave. The doorway is modeled after the wooden ones. These caves were dedicated by Ashoka and Dashratha to the Ajivakas.
• Viharas: The Viharas in India were originally constructed to shelter the monks during the rainy season, when it became difficult for them to lead the wanderer’s life. In Patliputra Ashoka built Ashokaram vihara and Kakuttaram Vihara (originally built by Kakuttasethi). One Kakuttaram Vihara is also at Kaushambi built in buddha period.

SCULPTURE-

• EXAMPLES OF SCULPTURE ARE FOUND MAINLY ON TOP OF PILLARS LIKE:-
• KOLUHA( BIHAR) – SINGLE LION, RAMPURVA( BIHAR)- BULL, SARNATH( UP) & SANCHI(M.P) – FOUR LION, SANKISA(UP) ELEPHANT, LAURIYA NANDANGARH( BIHAR)- LION
• SCULPTURES NOT FOUND ON PILLARS ARE- AT DHAULI(ODISHA) & AT KALSI(UTTARAKHAND) – ELEPHANT

PILLARS

• Ashokan pillars were monolithic with a height 12 to 15 meters (40 to 50 ft) & weighing up to 50 tons. Ashoka’s first pillar was found from Vaishali known as Koluha pillar. In terms of art and architecture Sarnath pillar of Ashoka is the best example of it. The smallest pillar is Rummendei pillar and the safest pillar till now is Lauriya Nandangarh pillar.
• There are two types of pillars: i. Inscribed pillars. ii. Non-inscribed pillars. There are 10 pillars which have inscriptions written on them. Kaushambi pillar, Vaishali pillar, Rampurva pillar and Sankisha pillars are non-inscribed pillars.
• Motifs associated with pillars: a. One Lion- It appears on the pillars of Vaishali, Lauriya Nandangarh. b. Elephant – An elephant capital was found at Sankisha. c. Bull- It was found on the Rampurva pillar. d. Four Lions- On Sarnath and Sanchi pillars.
• WHY ERECTED -TO SPREAD THE MESSAGE OF DHAMMA & TO AWARE THE SUBJECT ABOUT STATE’S POLICY ASHOKA ERECTED PILLARS IN MANY PARTS OF HIS EMPIRE
• SAND STONES TAKEN OUT FROM CHUNAR MINES, UP.
• SAND STONE- MAINLY WHITE SAND STONE
• PILLARS ARE BOLDLY DESIGNED & FINELY PROPORTIONED
• WELL POLISHED
• THREE PARTS- PROP( BURIED PART), SHAFT( MID PORTION) & CAPITAL(UPPER PART)
• CAPITAL HAS THREE PARTS- INVERTED LOTUS, ABACUS & STATUE OF AN ANIMAL ON TOP OF PILLARS
• IN SHAFT WE FOUND INSCRIPTION
• IMPORTANCE- 1. ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT. 2. KNOWLEDGE OF SCRIPT & LANGUAGE 3. DEMARCATION OF ASHOK’S EMPIRE IS POSSIBLE 4. INFORMATION ABOUT DHAMMA & OTHER STATE’ POLICIES.

PERSIAN VS ASHOKAN PILLARS

• PERSIAN:-
  • MADE OF MANY STONES
  • PART OF BUILDING
  • HAS THE BASE
  • AT THE TOP OF PILLARS STATUE OF ANIMAL & HEAD AS HUMAN BEING
• ASHOKA:-
  • MADE OF SINGLE STONE
  • FOUND IN AN OPEN SPACE, MAINLY ON TRADE ROUTES
  • WITHOUT BASE
  • AT TOP- FIGURE OF AN ANIMAL ONLY

FOLK ART

• SCULPTURE- Stone Sculpture: Several large stone sculptures have been found at various sites in and around Patna , Mathura , Madhya Pradesh and other places. Many of them represent Yaksha and Yakshi. Other important examples of stone sculptures include the statue of a nude male figure found at Lohanipur at Patna. It is carved out of Chunar sandstone and have a polished surface. Didarganj Yakshi was found at Didarganj village at Patna .
• HEAVY & MADE OF SAND STONE. EXAMPLE- 1. CHAURI BEARER OR YAKSHI- DIDARGANJ, PATNA. 2. IAMGE OF MANIBHADRA YAKSHA AT PARKHAM, MATHURA 3. IMAGE OF TRIMUKH YAKSHA- RAJGHAT, VARANASI
• TERRACOTTA FIGURINE- CLAY BASED MODEL
• JOGIMARA CAVES ( CHHATISGARH) – RELATED TO MAURYAN PERIOD .

FEATURES OF MAURYAN ART

• MAURYAN ART ARE OF TWO TYPES- COURT & FOLK
• MAURYAN ART NOT ABLE TO SURVIVE FOR LONG BECAUSE THEY WERE MAINLY ENCOURAGED BY STATE NOT BY COMMONERS
• STUPA ARCHITECTURE IN MAURYAN PERIOD WAS AT THE INITIAL PHASE OF DEVELOPMENT.
• STUPAS FULLY DEVELOPED & REACHED TO ITS ZENITH IN POST MAURYAN PERIOD
• MAURYAN IMAGES OF YAKSHA & YAKSHI MADE THE BACKGROUND OF MATHURA SCHOOL OF SCULPTURE

Foreign influence on Mauryan Art: Is there any foreign influence on Mauryan Art or not? Is a matter of controversy Several historians like Spooner, John Marshall and Niharranjan Ray accept the influence of foreigners on the Mauryan art by giving following points: i. It has been suggested that Ashoka got the idea of inscribing his proclamations on the pillars from Persians. ii. The foreign influence has been identified in the polished surface of the Ashokan pillars and the animal motifs. iii. It has been pointed out that the word dipi and lipi occur in the inscriptions of Darius as well as Ashoka.

But the above facts cannot be accepted completely. Historians have also drawn attention to the many differences between the Mauryan and the Persian arts: i. The pillars of Persian art are built of separate segments of stone whereas, the Mauryan pillar is monolithic. ii. Mauryan pillars does not have any base whereas, Persian pillars do have base. iii. The Mauryan type abacus and independent animals carved in the pillars are absent in the Persian art. While there may be some similarities in specific features, the effect of the whole is completely different. Moreover, while having pillars inscribed with his messages on Dhamma, Ashoka transformed them into epigraphic monument of unique cultural meaning.